Air pollution control technologies

There are many available air pollution control technologies and urban planning strategies available to reduce air pollution; however, worldwide costs of addressing the issue are high.[citation needed] Enforced air quality standards, like the Clean Air Act in the United States, have reduced the presence of some pollutants.

Many countries have programs to or are debating how to reduce dependence on fossil fuels for energy production and shift toward renewable energy technologies or nuclear power plants.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel), or conversion to electric vehicles with renewable energy sources (batteries or clean fuel such as hydrogen being used for transport and storage).

The Environmental Management System (EMS) II

The most popular kind of EMS is ISO 14000
The ISO 14000 standards reflect different aspects of environmental management. The following list outlines the broad coverage of each: Environmental Management Systems: 14001, 14002, 14004
Environmental Auditing: 19011
Environmental Labeling: 14020, 14021, 14022, 14023, 14024, 14025
Life Cycle Assessment: 14040, 14041,14042, 14043Evaluation of Environmental

The Environmental Management System (EMS) I

The Environmental Management System (EMS) is part of a management system of an organization (enterprise, authority, etc.), in which specific competencies, behaviours, procedures and demands for the implementation of an operational environmental policy of the organization are defined.

Within the European Union (EU) a voluntary piece of Legislation was introduced to encourage business to adopt EMS/ISO 14000
Regulation (EC) No 761/2001 OF THE European Parliament and of the Council of 19 March 2001 allowing voluntary participation by organisations in a Community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS)
The implementation of a robust EMS , which may incorporate ISO 14001 should lead to improved environmental performance, including better and more consistent legal compliance.

Environmental management III

Other environmental management systems tend to be based on this standard and to extend it in various ways:

The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term
Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to do the same thing
US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to large-scale EMS
The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework.

The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental management is achieved without "systems".

Environmental management II

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco Management & Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management. The UK has developed a phased standard (BS8555) that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps.

Environmental management I

Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.

Environmental Management

Environmental Management is not, as the phrase suggests, the management of the environment as such but rather the management of the humankind's interaction with and impact upon the environment. The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory. A common example of the consequences of exceeding the carrying capacity of an area is the starvation and eventual cannibalism of tribes on the Easter Islands after the depletion of the island's resources. Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake. This element of sustainable exploitation, getting the most out of natural assets, is visible in the French approach to water resources.

ISO 19011

ISO 19011 is an international standard that sets forth guidelines for:
quality management systems auditing
environmental management systems auditing
It is developed by the International Organization for Standardization.
The standard offer four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money":
A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing.
Guidance on the management of audit programmes.
Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits.
Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors.

EIA China II

A joint investigation by SEPA and the Ministry of Land and Resources in 2004 showed that 30 to 40 per cent of the mining construction projects went through the procedure of environment impact assessment as required, while in some areas only 6 to 7 per cent did so. This partly explains why China has witnessed so many mining accidents in recent years.

SEPA alone cannot guarantee the full enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, observed Professor Wang Canfa, director of the centre to help environmental victims at China University of Political Sciences and Law. In fact, according to Wang, the rate of China's environmental laws and regulations that are actually enforced is estimated to be barely 10 per cent.[2]

EIA China

The Environmental Impact Assessment Law (EIA Law)requires an environmental impact assessment to be completed prior to project construction. However, if a developer completely ignores this requirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impact statement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB) may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If the developer does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time, only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possible fine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall cost of most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms has resulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legally required environmental impact assessments prior to construction. [1]

China's State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) used the legislation to halt 30 projects in 2004, including three hydro-power plants under the Three Gorges Project Company. Although one month later (Note as a point of reference, that the typical EIA for a major project in the USA takes one to two years.), most of the 30 halted projects resumed their construction, reportedly having passed the environmental assessment, the fact that these key projects' construction was ever suspended was notable.

EIA EU II

5. Mitigation

This is where EIA is most useful
Once section 4 has been completed it will be obvious where the impacts will be greatest
Using this information ways to avoid negative impacts should be developed
Best working with the developer with this section as they know the project best
Using the windfarm example again construction could be out of bird nesting seasons

6. Non-technical summary

The EIA will be in the public domain and be used in the decision making process
It is important that the information is available to the public
This section is a summary that does not include jargon or complicated diagrams
It should be understood by the informed lay-person

7. Lack of know-how/technical difficulties

This section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge
It can be used to focus areas of future research
Some developers see the EIA as a starting block for good environmental management

EIA EU I

Under the EU directive, EIA have to provide certain information to comply. There are 7 key areas that EIA are required to focus on. EIA must include:

1. Description of the project

Description of actual project, site etc
Break the project down into its key components, ie construction, operations, decommissioning
For each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance
For each component all the inputs and outputs must be listed, eg, waste etc

2. Alternatives that have been considered

Examine alternatives that have been considered
Eg - In a biomass power station, will the fuel be sourced locally or nationally?

3. Description of the environment

List of all aspects of the environment that may be effected by the development
eg populations, fauna, flora, air, soil, water, humans, landscape, cultural heritage
This section is best carried out with the help of local experts, eg the RSPB in the UK

4. Description of the significant effects on the environment

The word significant is crucial here as the definition can vary
'Significant' needs to be defined
The most frequent method used here is use of the Leopold matrix
The maxtrix is a tool used in the systematic examination of potential interactions
Eg In a windfarm development a significant impact may be collisions with birds

EIA EU

The EIA Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment of the effects of projects on the environment was first introduced in 1985 and was amended in 1997. The directive was amended again in 2003 following the 1998 signature by the EU of the Aarhus Convention on public participation in environmental matters. The issue was enlarged to the assessment of plans and programmes by the so called SEA-Directive in 2001 which is now in force and establishes a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures for assessing environmental impacts. [1]

EIA New Zealand

In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the Resource Management Act was passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consent application. Section 88 of the Act spells this out.

EIA United States III

These various state requirements are yielding voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but also to elucidate scientific areas that had not been sufficiently researched. For example, in a seemingly routine Environmental Impact Report for the city of Monterey, California, information came to light that led to the official federal endangered species listing of Hickman's potentilla, a rare coastal wildflower.

EIA United States II

The adequacy of an EIS can be challenged in court. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the Westway landfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River in New York City [2]. Another prominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department of Transportation over its denial of Sierra Club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutants in the case of widening US Highway 95 through Las Vegas.[3] The case reached the 9th Circuit Court of the United States, which led to construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to the court's final decision.

Several US state governments that have adopted "little NEPA's," i.e., state laws imposing EIS requirements for particular state actions and some of those state laws refer to the required environmental impact studies as Environmental Impact Reports or Environmental Impact Assessments. [4] For example, the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires an Environmental Impact Report (EIR).

EIA United States

Under United States environmental law an EIA is referred to as the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), and originated in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enacted in the United States in 1969. Certain actions of federal agencies must be preceded by an EIS. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it specify any penalty if the EIS turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or otherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure that the decision maker is fully informed of the environmental aspects and consequences prior to making the final decision.

Usually, an agency will release a Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) for comment. Interested parties and the general public have the opportunity to comment on the draft, after which the agency will approve the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS). Occasionally, the agency will later release a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SEIS).

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) II

After an EIA analysis, the Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays may be applied to prevent, limit, or require strict liability or insurance coverages to a project, based on its likely harms.

Environmental impact analysis is sometimes controversial and contested. Related analysis of social impacts is achieved by Social impact assessment. Analysis of business impacts is achieved by Context analysis. Design impacts are assessed in relation to Context theory.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) I

The US Environmental Protection Agency pioneered the use of pathway analysis to determine the likely human health impact of environmental factors. The technology for performing such analysis is properly labelled environmental science. The principal phenomena or pathways of impact are: soil contamination impacts, air pollution impacts, noise health effects, ecology impacts including endangered species assessment, geological hazards assessment and water pollution impacts. Pathway analysis and The Natural Step definitions later became the basis of the global ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards and the more recent ISO 19011 accounting standard; however, these ISO standards are not in common use in the U.S. and most other countries.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the likely influence a project may have on the environment. “Environmental Impact Assessment can be defined as: The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.” (IAIA 1999). The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider environmental impacts before deciding whether to proceed with new projects.